English Grammar Fundamentals: Reported Speech, Conditionals, Modals & More

Reported Speech

Statements

• Reporting verbs: said, told, explained.
• Use 'that' (optional).
• Example: She said: "I am working with my father now." → She told me that she was working with her father then.

Commands / Orders

• Reporting verbs: asked, ordered.
• Use 'to' + infinitive.
• Example: He asked: "Close the window!" → He asked me to close the window.

Questions

Yes/No Questions

• Reporting verbs: asked, questioned.
• Use 'if' or 'whether'.
• Example: He asked: "Will you go to the party tomorrow?" → He asked me if I would go to the party the next day.

Wh-Questions

• Reporting verbs: asked, questioned.
• Use the Wh-word (where, when, why, etc.).
• Example: He asked: "Where did you go yesterday?" → He asked me where I had gone the previous day.

Suggestions

• Reporting verb: suggested.
• Use 'verb + -ing'.
• Example: She suggested: "Let's go to the party." → She suggested going to the party.

Tense and Time/Place Changes in Reported Speech

• Present Simple → Past Simple
• Present Continuous → Past Continuous
• Past Simple → Past Perfect (had + past participle)
• Present Perfect (have/has + past participle) → Past Perfect (had + past participle)
• Present Perfect Continuous (have/has been + -ing) → Past Perfect Continuous (had been + -ing)
• Future Simple (will + verb) → Conditional Simple (would + verb)
• Future Perfect (will have + past participle) → Conditional Perfect (would have + past participle)

Modal Verb Changes

• Can → Could
• May → Might
• Will → Would
• Must → Had to

Time and Place Adverb Changes

• Now → Then
• Today → That day
• Last night → The night before
• Tonight → That night
• This → That
• Yesterday → The day before
• Tomorrow → The next day
• Here → There
• Next year → The year after

Conditionals

• Zero Conditional (General Truths/Facts)

  • Structure: If + Subject + Present Simple, Subject + Present Simple
  • Example: If you heat water, it boils.

• First Conditional (Probable)

  • Structure: If + Subject + Present Simple, Subject + will + Base Verb
  • Can also use: unless, when, as soon as.
  • Example: If it rains, I will stay home.

• Second Conditional (Unreal/Hypothetical)

  • Structure: If + Subject + Past Simple, Subject + would + Base Verb
  • Example: If I had a million dollars, I would buy a house.

• Third Conditional (Past Unreal)

  • Structure: If + Subject + Past Perfect (had + past participle), Subject + would have + Past Participle
  • Example: If I had studied harder, I would have passed the exam.

Relative Pronouns

• Who: For people (functions as the subject).
• Which: For things/animals (functions as the object).
• That: For people or things (can be subject or object; not used between commas in non-defining clauses).
• Where: For places (replaces 'there' or a place adverbial).
• When: For time (replaces 'then' or a time adverbial).
• Whose: For possession (replaces possessive adjectives like 'my', 'your', 'his', etc.).

Passive Voice

The passive voice focuses on the action and the object of the action, rather than the performer of the action.

Passive Voice Structures by Tense

• Present Simple: is/are + past participle
• Present Continuous: is/are being + past participle
• Past Simple: was/were + past participle
• Past Continuous: was/were being + past participle
• Present Perfect: has/have been + past participle
• Past Perfect: had been + past participle
• Future Simple: will be + past participle
• Be Going To: is/are going to be + past participle
• Modals: modal + be + past participle
• Modal Perfect: modal + have been + past participle

Modal Verbs

Modal verbs express functions such as possibility, permission, obligation, and advice.

Common Modal Verbs and Their Uses

• Ability: can, could, be able to
• Possibility: may, might
• Obligation / Prohibition: must
• Necessity: need to, have to
• Advice: should, ought to
• Offers / Suggestions (in questions): shall

General Structure for Simple Modals

Subject + Modal Verb + Base Verb

Perfect Modals (Modals + Have + Past Participle)

These express actions or states in the past.

• Could have + Past Participle: Expresses a past ability or possibility that was not realized, or regret/criticism.
  • Example: You could have told me earlier. (Criticism)
• Must have + Past Participle: Expresses certainty or strong deduction about a past event.
  • Example: She must have left already. (Certainty)
• Should have / Ought to have + Past Participle: Expresses an unfulfilled obligation or regret about a past action.
  • Example: I should have studied more. (Regret)
• May have / Might have + Past Participle: Expresses possibility about a past event.
  • Example: They may have arrived by now. (Possibility)

General Structure for Perfect Modals

Subject + Modal Perfect + Past Participle

English Pronouns and Possessive Adjectives

This table summarizes the different forms of personal pronouns and possessive adjectives.