Fundamentos de la Metafísica y la Antropología: Teorías, Conceptos y Debates Clave

Metafísica: Conceptos Fundamentales

Origen del Término

Fue Andrónico de Rodas (siglo I a.C.) quien acuñó el término metafísica. Al ordenar los libros de Aristóteles, se encontró con una serie de obras inclasificables. Decidió colocar estos libros a continuación de los libros de física.

La metafísica será una ciencia o saber de lo que está detrás o más allá de esta realidad material o natural.

La metafísica es una rama de la filosofía.

La Realidad

En un sentido restrictivo, se considera que la realidad es todo aquello que nos rodea y de lo que podemos tener experiencia:

• Porque se trate de seres observables por los sentidos (árboles).
• Porque puedan observarse gracias a instrumentos como el microscopio o el telescopio (átomos, planetas).
• O porque podamos constatar las consecuencias de su existencia (ley de gravitación universal).

En un sentido amplio, se considera que no solo tienen existencia los seres materiales y observables de la ciencia, sino también realidades subjetivas que conocemos íntimamente (sentimientos, ideas, creencias), productos culturales (personajes literarios, mitológicos), y realidades inmateriales o espirituales (la mente, Dios, la libertad).

Estudio del Ser

Se caracteriza por:

• Ser una ciencia distinta de las ciencias particulares.
• Ocuparse del ser en un sentido general.

Usos del Verbo Ser

Uso predicativo: El gato es blanco. Responde a la fórmula «x es y».

Uso existencial: El gato es. Se ajusta a la fórmula «x es», lo que equivale a decir que «x existe».

Tipos de Ser

Ser como accidente: Atribuimos a una realidad determinada una cualidad. En lugar de ser blanco, podría ser negro; en vez de ser alto, bajo.

Ser por sí mismo o sustancia: Ser gato, ser humano; son seres auténticos, sustancias.

Conceptos Relacionados

• Realidad: El conjunto de todos los seres y objetos que tienen existencia por sí mismos, independientemente de que alguien los perciba.
• Apariencia: Forma en que se manifiesta o aparece la realidad a los sujetos que la perciben.
• Ser: Es lo que hay, lo que existe, la realidad.
• Nada: Lo que no existe o no tiene realidad.

¿Cómo podemos ni siquiera nombrarla si no es?

La nada es una pseudoidea, es un término lógico, es una estructura lógica vacía de contenido, pero es.

Metafísicas Clásicas y Contemporáneas

Metafísicas Espiritualistas

La Realidad Sustancial Cartesiana

Descartes es uno de los representantes históricos del espiritualismo.

Únicamente hay tres sustancias de las que podemos afirmar que tienen existencia por sí mismas:

Res cogitans:

Sustancia pensante o alma que posee la razón.

Res extensa:

Sustancia material o mundo que la forman todos aquellos seres que tienen una localización espacio-temporal y están sometidos a las leyes de la física.

Res infinita:

Sustancia divina o Dios que es la única que propiamente existe por sí misma, que garantiza nuestro conocimiento sobre la realidad.

El Absolutismo Hegeliano

Según Hegel, existe una sola realidad, un espíritu absoluto, que contiene en sí la totalidad de lo real: el mundo o naturaleza, Dios y la conciencia o pensamiento. Este espíritu o totalidad es un proceso dialéctico.

Problemas del Espiritualismo

• Problema epistemológico: El carácter problemático y discutible de una aprehensión rigurosa y fiable de las realidades espirituales.
• Problema ontológico: No han resultado demasiado satisfactorios los intentos por explicar cómo se relacionan Dios y el mundo, o entre la mente y el cuerpo.
• Problema antropológico: El ser humano viene a ser la unión de dos realidades de naturaleza distinta: el cuerpo y el alma.

El Atomismo Clásico

Todos los seres que podemos percibir son combinaciones de átomos.

El Materialismo Histórico

Marx considera que la historia y todo proceso humano o natural tienen causas materiales. Son las particulares condiciones materiales de vida de un momento concreto las que determinan la ideología imperante.

Problemas del Materialismo

• Problema epistemológico: Es imposible afirmar la experiencia alguna acerca de la relación entre nuestra mente y la realidad material.
• Problema antropológico. Dificultades:
  • El determinismo: El mecanismo dificulta la defensa de la libertad humana.
  • Mente y cerebro: Los estados y procesos mentales tienen propiedades distintas de las conexiones nerviosas.
• Problemas metafísicos: El materialismo niega la existencia de este tipo de realidad.

Actualidad y Críticas a la Metafísica

Críticas a la Metafísica

Crítica a la Validez del Conocimiento Metafísico

Para Aristóteles, la metafísica es la ciencia del ser, la ciencia primera. Según Hume, de realidades como el yo, la mente o Dios, no es posible un conocimiento válido, puesto que no se basan en ninguna experiencia.

Crítica Lingüística

Según los neopositivistas, las proposiciones metafísicas son pseudoproposiciones, generan contradicciones y ambigüedades y no permiten la experiencia.

Consideración Histórica de la Metafísica

• Etapa metafísica (Época Antigua): Los pensadores de esta etapa tan larga confían en lograr explicar la totalidad de lo real.
• Etapa crítica (Época Moderna): La filosofía deja de verse como un saber indiscutible.
• Etapa post metafísica (Época Actual): Se radicalizan críticas iniciadas en la modernidad, con Nietzsche o Comte.

Vigencia de la Metafísica

Los intereses y problemas metafísicos siguen interesándonos, aunque los ataques son sólidos. Kant dictaminó que la metafísica no podrá tener nunca la categoría de la ciencia. Sin embargo, responde a una tendencia inherente e inevitable de la razón humana.

Metaphysical Theories: Classification and Definitions

H3. What are the different metaphysical theories that we can point out? Explain what each of them stand for.

Classification by Origin Principle (Monism vs. Pluralism)

As they consider that it all comes from a single principle or not:

MONISTS

Despite the apparent diversity, reality originates or is constituted from a single principle or element.

PLURALISTS

The principles of nature are multiple.

Classification by Nature (Materialism vs. Spiritualism)

Depending on whether they consider that it all comes down to the material or not:

MATERIALISTS

To explain reality, it is not necessary to resort to realities or principles of a spiritual type.

SPIRITUALISTS

There are ideal principles that structure or shape material reality.

Classification by Human Nature (Essentialism vs. Existentialism)

Whether or not they consider that humans share the same nature:

ESSENTIALISM

Every being has an essence. Essence defines what one thing is. What we do is a consequence of who we are. Our nature pushes us to act in a certain way.

EXISTENTIALISM

In the case of the human being, we cannot speak of a common essence. In human beings, existence precedes the essence. It's the actions we're doing that build our identity. We can always choose in each situation from several possible options.

H3. What do we mean by spiritualism? What three different types of ideas could a spiritualist person share?

According to spiritualism, below the material reality of which we have experience, there is a spiritual reality that gives meaning to it. Spiritualists share these ideas:

• The reality we perceive is just an appearance. There is an authentic reality that is the true support of the information that the senses transmit to us.
• We are more than just nerve connections and matter. What makes us who we are is our mind that also guarantees our survival beyond the destruction of the body.
• There has to be something else that gives meaning to life and the world. There is a God or principle, cause and reason for all there is.

H3. Explain Platonic idealism.

According to Plato, there is a spiritual reality beyond the material, the World of Ideas, which is formed by eternal, immutable, and perfect ideas, imperceptible by the senses. Instead, what surrounds us, the material world of things, is imperfect, changing, and temporary.

H3. What do we mean by materialism? What three types of issues could a materialistic person share?

Materialistic thinkers deny the existence of spiritual realities and reduce everything that is to material or sensory reality. Materialists share these ideas:

• Things are as we perceive them; the only sure thing is what we have experience from.
• We are one more animal that evolution has equipped with a complex and sophisticated control command that we call the brain, which is responsible for our ideas, beliefs, and feelings.
• There are only life cycles in which some are born, and others die in a perfect balance of which we are only insignificant pieces.

H3. Explain the classic atomism.

Reality comes down to atoms and emptiness. The changes, possible thanks to the existence of vacuum, have a random nature since the atoms move freely and spontaneously. It is not necessary to resort to the gods to explain reality or its transformations.

La Antropología Filosófica y Científica

Definición y Objeto de Estudio

El término procede de anthropos (ser humano) y logos (estudio o conocimiento). La antropología intenta responder preguntas sobre qué somos y en qué consiste nuestra condición.

División de la Antropología

• La antropología filosófica: Aspira a una explicación global de nuestra identidad frente a los demás.
• La antropología científica: Se ocupa tanto de la dimensión biológica de la especie humana como de la dimensión cultural.

Antropología Física y Cultural

La antropología física estudia los aspectos biológicos y propios del ser humano; es decir, el ser humano en cuanto organismo animal.

Explicaciones sobre el Origen de las Especies

Explicaciones Pre-evolucionistas

Linneo y Cuvier, defensores del creacionismo fijista, consideraban que la adaptabilidad de los individuos al medio es el resultado o producto de un diseño inteligente.

Explicaciones Evolucionistas

• Las doctrinas mutacionistas explican los cambios en las características de las especies a partir de las alteraciones o mutaciones en el material genético.
• La combinación de la teoría de la selección natural y las doctrinas mutacionistas es la base de las teorías sintéticas o neodarwinistas. Sin embargo, estas teorías presentan algunas lagunas.

Debates Clave en Antropología

Tensión entre Naturaleza y Cultura

Perspectiva de Freud

Freud destaca que las personas tenemos que reprimir la satisfacción de los deseos para poder vivir en sociedad.

La cultura, encargada de poner ese freno a los impulsos naturales, nos enseña a reprimirnos. Ahora bien, si el nivel de represión es excesivo, se genera en el ser humano un malestar que deriva en infelicidad.

Perspectiva de Rousseau

Rousseau apunta hacia una bondad natural del ser humano que se va viendo dañada a medida que vamos descubriendo cómo funciona la sociedad.

H3. What does cultural anthropology study? What is meant by culture in this field and what is studied?

Cultural anthropology studies the origin, development, structure, and characteristics of human culture, both in past and present societies. In this field, culture means any behavior learned in the social framework:

• Political, social, and economic structures.
• Kinship relationships.
• Religious myths and rituals.
• Artistic and technical production.

H3. Among the pre-evolutionist explanations, what do Plato and Aristotle claim? What about the biblical tradition?

• Plato or Aristotle believed that the species had not undergone changes since their origin and remained constant; those undergoing modifications are the individuals.
• The biblical tradition explained the origin of the species by turning to creationist theory, which was based on a literal interpretation of the book of Genesis. Its basic thesis was the separate and definitive creation of all living species and the creation of the human being by God in his image and likeness.

H3. Charles Darwin laid the foundation for current evolutionary explanations. Explain the three theses that synthesize his theory.

The publication in 1859 of Darwin's work The Origin of Species led to the bankruptcy of Fijian doctrines, which had already been questioned by Lamarck in his book Zoological Philosophy. We can synthesize Darwin's theory into three fundamental theses:

1. The evolution of species occurs through continuous transformations, all coming from previous ones through gradual changes.
2. Natural selection is the explanatory principle of evolution. Only the changes that are most effective in the struggle for life persist. Better-endowed individuals survive and inherit their characteristics.
3. Human beings descend from ancient primates.

H3. Point to the difference between the technical capacity and the symbolic capacity of the human being.

Technical capacity:

It is the ability to manufacture and use instruments to modify the environment to meet our needs. Throughout history, an increase in the degree of effectiveness of technical products can be seen.

Symbolic capacity:

It is the ability of human beings to create and express themselves through symbols. Thanks to it, human achievements such as art or language, as well as self-awareness or moral conscience, are possible.

H3. What is the cultural dimension made of? Explain the definition of culture and say how it differs from culture in animals.

The cultural dimension is composed of everything acquired socially: knowledge, techniques, habits, norms, ways of life, which can be given either by imitation, by teaching, or by assimilation. Thus understood, animals will also have some kind of culture since they are able to transmit socially acquired behaviors. For example, chimpanzees learn the use of various tools by observing other chimpanzees.

H3. What do we mean by human culture?

Human culture is the set of information acquired socially and transmitted through language. The human being, thanks to culture, can modify his own environment, so we say that culture has an adaptive value. This is what has happened throughout history; there has been a cultural evolution, often more significant than biological adaptation.

H3. What are the characteristics of cultural facts? Explain them.

• Social heritage: Cultural events are transmitted through social channels such as family, school, language.
• Symbolism: They are expressed through community-shared symbols.
• Nature domain: They arise as a form of control over nature.
• Socially shared: They are a group fact characteristic of all human societies.
• Globalizer: They give rise to rules, behaviors, or habits for everything around us and for everything we do.

H3. Point out and explain the different positions on cultural diversity.

Ethnocentrism:

Ethnocentrism is the attitude adopted by those who value the culture of other groups from criteria of their own culture. From the assurance that their own culture is the good one, ethnocentrists despise and criticize different and strange cultural elements. This position is the basis of phenomena such as imperialism or colonization.

Racism:

Belief or attitude that is based on the consideration that there are groups that by their racial characteristics are superior to others, allowing marginalization or isolation by race, religion, cultural level. Currently, since genetics, essential characteristics have not been found that allow the distinction between different races.

Xenophobia:

Attitude of contempt and rejection towards the foreign, often emotional, produced by fear and ignorance.

Cultural relativism:

Cultural relativism considers that it is impossible to compare the characteristics of different cultures. It is based on the belief that every culture has value in itself and is made up of elements that are explained by an internal logic that is difficult for an external observer to grasp. This position often serves as an excuse for passivity in the face of unjust acts.

Universalism:

Universalism rejects ethnocentrism and is based on a dialogue that facilitates the convergence of those cultural traits that have proven their effectiveness: democratic organization of society, respect for fundamental rights, equal opportunities. These traits deserve to become universal without the characteristics of each people disappearing. Interculturalism and dialogue is born of the recognition of cultural plurality as an enriching fact, since it can help us to better understand the world and ourselves. It bets on tolerance and dialogue between the various beliefs.

H3. Why do some people question globalization?

Today, thanks to the development of new technologies, cultural contact is increasing, resulting in an unprecedented phenomenon of convergence and cultural contagion. The assimilation of traits typical of other peoples makes human cultures increasingly similar.

This position has detractors who regard this cultural convergence as a kind of camouflaged ethnocentrism of Western culture. Globalization is thought to be a homogenizing project that involves the expansion of the free-market capitalist economy system to all countries with the risk that poorer countries will lose their cultural peculiarities.

H3. What does innatism refer to?

Innatism refers to the position that argues that human behavior is fundamentally due to our biological nature, which would be largely determined by our genes. Innatists, however, recognize that the environment and education do have some influence. However, the key lies in our genetic heritage, because that is where the potential development margins of each capacity are defined.

H3. What do environmentalists stand for?

According to environmentalists, the human being, unlike the rest of the animals, at birth is of great plasticity. Since we come equipped with a small repertoire of reflex acts and a few instinctive responses, the rest will be the result of learning. It will be the experiences that we live in the environment in general that will make each of us the kind of person that is. From this perspective, the importance of inherited traits is minimized, and the emphasis is placed on how education and socialization has influenced each one.