Mastering English Grammar: Essential Connectors, Verb Forms, and Tenses

This comprehensive reference provides a clear overview of key English grammar concepts, including various types of connectors, verb tenses, reported speech, and common verb forms. Designed for learners seeking to solidify their understanding, this document clarifies usage rules and provides practical examples.

Connectors of Purpose

Connectors of purpose explain why something is done. They can be followed by a verb or a clause.

• Connector + Verb (Infinitive):
  • to (not)
  • in order (not) to
  • so as (not) to

  Example: She studies hard to pass the exam. (Ella estudia mucho para aprobar el examen.)

• Connector + Clause:
  • so (that)
  • in order that

  Example: He saved money so that he could buy a car. (Ahorró dinero para poder comprar un coche.)

• For + Gerund (-ing form):
  • for

  Used to state the purpose or function of something.

  Example: This knife is for cutting bread. (Este cuchillo es para cortar pan.)

Connectors of Cause

These connectors explain why something happened or is true.

• Connector + Clause:
  • because
  • as (preferably at the beginning of the clause)
  • since
  • seeing that

  Example: Because it was raining, we stayed indoors. (Como estaba lloviendo, nos quedamos dentro.)

• Connector + Noun Phrase or Gerund (-ing form):
  • because of
  • due to
  • owing to

  Example: We cancelled the picnic due to the bad weather. (Cancelamos el picnic debido al mal tiempo.)

Connectors of Result

These connectors indicate the consequence or outcome of an action or situation.

• Connector + Clause:
  • therefore
  • as a result
  • consequently
  • for this reason

  Example: He didn't study; therefore, he failed the exam. (No estudió; por lo tanto, suspendió el examen.)

• Connector + Noun Phrase or Gerund (-ing form):
  • as a result of

  Example: His success was as a result of hard work. (Su éxito fue como resultado del trabajo duro.)

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses, providing more information about a noun.

• who / that (for people) - que / quien
• which / that (for things) - que / el, la cual
• whose (for people, possession) - cuyo/a
• where (for place) - donde
• when (for time) - cuando
• that (for time, often interchangeable with 'when') - que

Reported Speech (Indirect Speech)

Reported speech is used to convey what someone else said without directly quoting them. Tenses and time/place expressions often shift.

Tense Changes in Reported Speech:

• Present Simple → Past Simple (e.g., stay → stayed)
• Present Continuous → Past Continuous (e.g., is staying → was/were staying)
• Past Simple → Past Perfect (e.g., stayed → had stayed)
• Past Continuous → Past Perfect Continuous (e.g., was staying → had been staying)
• Present Perfect → Past Perfect (e.g., has stayed → had stayed)
• Present Perfect Continuous → Past Perfect Continuous (e.g., has/have been staying → had been staying)
• Past Perfect → Past Perfect (e.g., had stayed → had stayed) - No change
• Past Perfect Continuous → Past Perfect Continuous (e.g., had been staying → had been staying) - No change
• Future Simple (will) → Conditional (would) (e.g., will stay → would stay)

Modal Verb Changes in Reported Speech:

• can → could
• may → might
• must / have to → must / had to
• will → would

Time and Place Adverb Changes in Reported Speech:

• now → then
• today → that day
• tonight → that night
• yesterday → the previous day / the day before
• last week → the previous week / the week before
• a month ago → the previous month / a month before
• tomorrow → the following day / the next day
• next week → the following week / the next week
• here → there
• this → that
• these → those

Connectors of Addition

These connectors add more information or ideas.

• in addition, furthermore, moreover, what's more, besides, also (además, también):

  Placed before a clause, usually followed by a comma. They typically appear after a pause (e.g., a semicolon or full stop) and introduce a new sentence or independent clause.

  Example: He is a talented musician; furthermore, he is an excellent painter.

• in addition to / besides (además de):

  Can be at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. Followed by a noun phrase or a gerund (-ing form). No comma is typically used immediately after them.

  Example: In addition to his regular job, he works as a volunteer.

• as well as (así como):

  Can be at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. Never at the end. Followed by a noun phrase or a gerund (-ing form).

  Example: She sings as well as playing the guitar.

Present and Past Perfect Tenses: Key Time Expressions

Understanding these time expressions is crucial for correct usage of Perfect tenses.

• JUST (acabar de):

  Placed after the auxiliary 'have/has' in affirmative sentences, and after the subject in questions.

  Example: I have just finished my homework. Have you just arrived?

• EVER (alguna vez):

  Used in questions, placed after the subject. In negatives, it's used after 'not' (e.g., 'never').

  Example: Have you ever been to London? I haven't ever seen such a thing (more common: I have never seen...).

• YET (aún / ya):

  Always placed at the end of the sentence. Means 'still' in negatives and 'already' in interrogatives.

  Example: She hasn't arrived yet. Has he finished his work yet?

• ALREADY (ya):

  In affirmative sentences, placed after the auxiliary 'have/has'. In interrogatives, it can be placed after the subject.

  Example: I have already eaten. Have you already seen this movie?

• FOR (durante):

  Part of a time expression, indicating duration. Usually goes at the end of the sentence or phrase.

  Example: I have lived here for five years.

Understanding 'Used To', 'Be Used To', and 'Get Used To'

• USED TO (solía):

  Followed by the base form of the infinitive. Refers to past habits or states that no longer exist.

  Example: I used to play tennis every day.

• BE USED TO (estar acostumbrado/a a):

  Followed by a gerund (-ing form) or a noun. Refers to being accustomed to something.

  Example: I am used to waking up early. She is used to the noise.

• GET USED TO (acostumbrarse a):

  Followed by a gerund (-ing form) or a noun. Refers to the process of becoming accustomed to something.

  Example: It took me a while to get used to living in a new city.

Connectors of Contrast

These connectors introduce a contrasting idea or statement.

• BUT, YET (pero):

  Followed by a clause, adjective, or adverb. 'Yet' is more formal and often implies 'but nevertheless'.

  Example: He is rich, but he is not happy. It's a small car, yet it's very spacious.

• IN SPITE OF / DESPITE (a pesar de):

  Followed by a noun phrase or a gerund (-ing form).

  Example: In spite of the rain, we went for a walk. Despite feeling tired, she continued working.

• WHILE / WHEREAS (mientras que):

  Followed by a clause. Used to show a direct contrast between two facts or ideas.

  Example: Some people prefer coffee, while others prefer tea.

• HOWEVER, NEVERTHELESS (sin embargo), EVEN SO (aún así), ON THE CONTRARY (por otra parte):

  Typically appear after a full stop (or semicolon) and are followed by a comma and a new sentence/clause. They introduce a contrasting idea.

  Example: It was raining heavily. However, we decided to go out. He said he was tired; nevertheless, he kept working.

• ON THE ONE HAND / ON THE OTHER HAND:

  Used to present two contrasting points of view or aspects of an issue. Each phrase is followed by a comma and a clause.

  Example: On the one hand, the job offers a good salary. On the other hand, the hours are very long.

'Wish' Clauses: Expressing Desires and Regrets

'Wish' clauses are used to express desires, regrets, or wishes about situations that are different from reality.

• Wish / If only + Past Simple:

  Used for wishes about a present situation that you want to be different.

  Example: I wish I had more free time. (If only the buses came early.)

• Wish / If only + Past Perfect:

  Used for regrets about a past situation that you wish had been different.

  Example: I wish I had visited my aunt. (If only I had studied harder.)

• Wish / If only + could/would + Base Form:

  Used for wishes about the future, or to express a desire for someone to do something (often implying annoyance or impatience).

  Example: I wish I could fly. (If only you would shut up.)

Verb Forms: Infinitive, Gerund, and Base Form

Understanding when to use each verb form is fundamental for accurate English.

1. To-Infinitive (to + Base Form)

• To express purpose:

  Example: I went to the shop to buy milk.

• After certain adjectives:

  e.g., delighted, disappointed, glad, sad, un/happy, anxious, pleased, surprised, proud, un/able, un/likely, ready, prepared, willing, difficult, easy, im/possible, hard, normal.

  Example: I'm glad to see you.

• After certain verbs:
  • Verbs of feeling and thinking: choose, decide, expect, forget, hate, hope, learn, like, love, plan, prefer, remember, want, would like/love.
  • Verbs to express what someone tells us: agree, promise, refuse.
  • Verbs followed by an indirect object: advise, ask, invite, order, remind, tell, warn, want.

  Example: She decided to leave. He advised me to study more.

• Negatives: Place 'not' before 'to'.

  Example: Try not to make noise.

2. Gerund (-ing Form)

• As the subject of a sentence:

  Example: Swimming is good exercise.

• As a verb complement (after certain verbs):

  e.g., admit, can't help, dis/like, love, don't mind, enjoy, give up, hate, imagine, miss, practice, risk, suggest.

  Example: I enjoy reading books.

• After prepositions (except 'to' when it's part of a phrasal verb or expression that takes an infinitive):

  Example: She's good at drawing. Thank you for helping me.

3. Base Form (Bare Infinitive)

• After modal verbs:

  e.g., can, could, must, should, will, would, may, might.

  Example: You should study harder.

• After the verbs 'help', 'let', 'make':

  Example: She helped me carry the bags. My parents let me go out. He made me laugh.