Twentieth-Century European History: Revolutions, Inter-War Crises, and Dictatorships

Russia: From Absolutism to Revolution

Despite the liberal revolutions of the 19th century, the Russian Empire continued to be an absolute monarchy. However, Russian involvement in the First World War worsened the economic and political problems that the empire was already experiencing. This led to a revolution in 1917 which established the first Communist state in history.

The Tsarist Empire

In the 19th century and early 20th centuries, Russia was an empire with the following characteristics:

• It was an absolute monarchy ruled by the tsar. Civil rights were not recognised and political parties faced repression.
• The economy was semi-feudal—a wealthy minority owned most of the agricultural land, which was worked by a peasant majority.
• A capitalist economy could not develop because both the bourgeoisie and the working class were smaller and less significant than in other European countries.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the Russian Empire, ruled by Tsar Nicholas II, began to experience serious problems:

• In 1898, the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) was formed. Its aim was to establish a socialist state based on the principles of Marxist ideology.
• In 1903, the RSDLP divided into separate factions:
  • The Mensheviks: Led by Martov, who argued that gradual reforms could achieve a socialist state.
  • The Bolsheviks: Led by Lenin, who argued for an immediate revolution to remove the tsar from power and establish a socialist state.
• In January 1905, there were protests against the tsar's absolutist regime, but they were suppressed by the government. In response, workers and soldiers formed a revolutionary council (or soviet) in the city of St. Petersburg. After that, there was a series of protests and strikes.
• From 1914 to 1917, Russia's participation in the First World War caused more discontent and protests because Russian soldiers did not have enough food or military equipment.

The Revolutions of February and October 1917

The Russian Revolution began in February 1917, when protests involving peasants, workers and soldiers forced Nicholas II to abdicate. At first, the Mensheviks formed a provisional government. The Provisional Government declared Russia a republic, and made political parties legal. However, Lenin's Bolsheviks opposed the Mensheviks and established an alternative government based on the soviets.

In October 1917 there was another revolution. The Bolsheviks seized control of the government and Lenin became the new leader of Russia. One of his first actions was to sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the German Empire in March 1918. This allowed Russia to withdraw from an unpopular war, but in return the Bolsheviks agreed to give large amounts of land and resources to Germany.

After taking power, the Bolsheviks began persecuting their opponents. In July 1918, they killed the tsar and his family. In response to these events, a civil war broke out between the White Russians, who were counter-revolutionaries, and the Bolshevik forces, known as the Red Army. The Red Army eventually won the civil war.

In 1922, Lenin established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, commonly known as the USSR or Soviet Union. He also approved a new constitution based on communist principles. In the USSR, Karl Marx's idea of the dictatorship of the proletariat was put into practice through a system in which workers' interests were represented by one political party: the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). The party also controlled the soviets, which directed all state institutions. Under this communist system, the state also controlled the means of production, such as factories and energy sources, as well as trade and finance.

Spain: The Reign of Alfonso XIII

When Alfonso XIII became king in 1902, he was confronted with a series of political, social and colonial problems that would eventually bring about the fall of the monarchy.

Political Opposition

The Bourbon Restoration in Spain was characterised by alternating Liberal and Conservative governments. However, this system began to collapse due to internal divisions in both political parties. In addition, other parties were also gaining support, including:

• The Spanish Socialist Party (PSOE): Which argued for increased working-class access to power.
• Republican parties: Such as the Radical Republican Party (PRR), which argued for the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic.
• The Spanish Communist Party (PCE): Founded in 1921, which argued for the creation of a communist state similar to the USSR.
• Regionalist parties: Which demanded more autonomy for their particular regions, such as the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) and the Regionalist League of Catalonia (the Lliga or LRC). In response to growing regionalism, the government allowed the creation of regional associations, such as the Mancomunidad de Cataluña, which was established in 1914.

Social Conflicts

During the reign of Alfonso XIII, workers continued to demand better working conditions through demonstrations and strikes. In some cases, they also used violence. Trade unions such as the Socialist UGT and the Anarchist CNT achieved some important advances, including:

• Legal recognition for trade unions.
• An eight-hour working day and a six-day working week.
• The establishment of a pension system for retired workers.
• New laws to regulate female and child labour.

Colonial Problems

After the Disaster of '98 and the loss of its last colonies, Spain tried to acquire new colonies in North Africa. Its aim was to rebuild its empire and regain international prestige. However, this renewed imperialism created new problems for the Spanish government:

• Tragic Week: When Spanish reservists were sent to fight in Morocco in 1909, there were protests in Barcelona led by workers and the families of soldiers. These protests were brutally suppressed by the army.
• War in Morocco: In 1912, Spain established a protectorate over its newly acquired territories in Morocco. Other areas of Morocco were controlled by France. However, the presence of foreign troops provoked opposition from the native population of northern Morocco, which led to the outbreak of the Spanish-Moroccan Rif War (1920–1926). During this war, Spain suffered a severe defeat at the 1921 Battle of Annual, in which 14,000 soldiers were killed or taken prisoner.

Spain and the First World War

Spain did not participate in the First World War and declared itself neutral. After the Disaster of '98, the country's economic and social problems made it unadvisable to enter a large-scale military conflict. Catalonia and the Basque Country experienced economic growth and increased their industrial capacity as a result of demand from the countries fighting the war.

At the end of the war, Spain suffered an economic crisis because demand for its products collapsed after the fighting had ended. The post-war economic crisis forced many factories to close.

Economic and Cultural Changes

However, overall economic development during Alfonso XIII's reign had resulted in a more industrialised society—although one still not as industrialised as other parts of Europe. Economic change also caused many people to migrate from rural areas to industrial centres like Barcelona, Bilbao and Madrid.

There were also some changes in leisure and entertainment habits in this period. For example, bullfighting became more popular and Spain celebrated its first national football championship. Football had first been introduced to Spain in the 19th century by British workers in the Río Tinto Mines in Huelva.

The Military and Primo de Rivera (1923–1930)

During this period, public opinion became very critical of the military and the defeats it was suffering in Morocco. Military officers also played a prominent role in Spanish politics, especially in the suppression of protests and strikes. Compulsory military service was also a source of discontent, since it mostly affected the poor and members of the working class. Wealthier people could avoid military service by paying a special fee, although this practice was abolished in 1912. These factors created a climate of political instability. Finally, the government was overthrown by a military coup in 1923. The coup was led by General Miguel Primo de Rivera and had the approval of the king. After the coup, Primo de Rivera established a dictatorship.

Democracy and Dictatorship (1923–1939)

The inter-war years were marked by important economic and political developments. During the 1920s, Europe and the United States enjoyed a period of economic prosperity often referred to as the Roaring Twenties. However, this changed after 1929, when a severe economic crisis known as the Great Depression began.

In political terms, the countries which had participated in the First World War evolved in two different directions. Countries such as Great Britain, France and the United States continued to be democracies. However, in other countries authoritarian dictatorships were established. In the cases of the Soviet Union and Germany, these became totalitarian regimes.

In the early part of this period, Spain was a dictatorship under Primo de Rivera. The establishment of the Second Republic brought about a period of democracy, but this ended with the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936. The war lasted until 1939 and was won by the Nationalist forces, who then established an authoritarian regime under the leadership of General Franco. Art reflected the political and economic situation of the inter-war period. It was also often used as propaganda by non-democratic regimes.

The Inter-War Economy

The Post-War Crisis

In the early 1920s, Europe experienced an economic crisis caused by:

• The material destruction which had occurred during the First World War, and the reduced workforce brought about by the millions of deaths and casualties.
• The end of the war economy, which had been based on the production of military equipment and supplies.

There was also a shortage of consumer goods and high levels of inflation. In post-war Germany, this economic crisis was especially severe because of the reparations payments that the country had to make under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles.

The Roaring Twenties

The United States and Japan were the first countries to recover from the crisis, since they had not been devastated by the war. The United States also helped European countries by giving them loans and selling them the consumer goods that they lacked.

By the mid-1920s, the European economy had recovered and was growing rapidly. This period, often called the Roaring Twenties, was characterised by new forms of entertainment, increased consumption and a rapid growth in financial investments:

• Music: Radio shows, cabarets, ballrooms and music halls were popular types of entertainment.
• Cinema: A new film industry developed, with famous Hollywood stars such as Greta Garbo and Charlie Chaplin emerging.
• Consumerism: People spent more money on cars, household appliances and luxury goods.
• Investments: People speculated, buying shares and making large profits over short periods of time.

The Great Depression

At the end of the 1920s, a series of problems in the United States caused a major economic crisis, known as the Great Depression. This crisis lasted until the end of the 1930s and brought an end to the prosperous, consumer lifestyle of the previous decade. The problems that led to the crisis in the United States included:

• Overproduction: American industry produced more goods than the population needed. When companies could not sell their products, they went bankrupt and had to close.
• Falling consumption: When companies closed down, people lost their jobs and stopped spending money. Rising unemployment reduced demand for consumer goods and the raw materials that were used to make them. As a result, more and more companies went out of business.
• The Wall Street Crash: When many companies whose shares were sold on the stock market began to fail, investors panicked and tried to sell all of their shares. As a result, share values fell dramatically and in October 1929, the New York stock market crashed.

The effects of the crash soon spread to Europe and other parts of the world because the United States asked other countries to repay the loans that they had received after the war. As a consequence, consumption decreased in Europe and companies there went out of business as well. Wages fell and unemployment increased. In addition, some banks collapsed because many people panicked and withdrew all their money. The depression also had a negative impact on international trade because many countries adopted protectionist measures in response to the economic crisis.

During the depression, living standards declined dramatically. In many countries, there were protests against the government and against the capitalist system that had produced the crisis.

Democratic States

European Democracies

At the end of the First World War, democracy continued to be the form of government in countries such as Great Britain, which was a parliamentary monarchy, and France, which was a republic. After the war, Germany also became a democracy when the Weimar Republic was established in 1919. During the 1920s and 1930s, these states had a number of common characteristics:

• Great Britain and France were democracies, as was Germany until 1933. However, the democracies did not always protect all rights and freedoms equally in this period. For example, workers' rights to protest against government policies and go on strike were not always respected.
• Workers reacted by voting for political parties that defended their interests. As a result, left-wing parties, including both socialist and communist, increased their support and gained more seats in parliament during the inter-war years.
• In response to this growth in support for left-wing parties, the bourgeoisie and the upper classes voted for right-wing parties, which advocated more traditional, conservative policies. In Germany and Italy, some of these parties opposed democracy and supported the establishment of an authoritarian regime.

Left-wing parties: These were political parties that defended workers' interests and supported policies that would reduce social and economic inequalities. They included:

• Social Democratic and Labour parties that favoured moderate policies, within the limits of the democratic system.
• Communist parties that advocated more radical policies and aimed to overthrow democracy and establish a communist state.

Democracy in the United States

In the 1920s and 1930s, the United States was already a democracy, but it was distinct in some respects from the European democracies of the inter-war period. The main difference was the country's two-party political system.

The Republican Party supported the capitalist system, but they were more sympathetic to government intervention in the economy and to policies that would reduce social and economic inequalities. They also supported the existence of trade unions. Democrats generally represented the interests of the middle and working classes. In the 1920s and early 1930s, Republican administrations governed the United States. This was partly a result of the economic prosperity of the 1920s, and also due to fear of communism. Many Americans believed that communism could spread to the United States and destroy their capitalist society. These Republican administrations supported conservative policies: they were isolationist in their foreign policy and hostile to immigration.

The Democrats returned to power in 1933 after Franklin D. Roosevelt won the presidential election. As president, FDR passed a series of measures called the New Deal. The New Deal brought greater government intervention in the economy that included:

• Public works programmes to create jobs and reduce unemployment.
• The establishment of a basic social insurance system.
• Assistance for farmers and other people affected by the depression.

Authoritarianism and Totalitarianism

In the 1920s and 1930s, authoritarian dictatorships came to power in many countries. In some cases, these evolved into totalitarian regimes:

• A left-wing authoritarian regime came to power in the USSR as a result of the Russian Revolution. The communist state was anti-capitalist and aimed to establish a classless society.
• Right-wing authoritarian regimes came to power in Italy (1922) and Germany (1933). These regimes were extremely pro-nationalist and they were opposed to both communism and democracy.

Authoritarian and totalitarian regimes shared some common features:

• Politics: Power was concentrated in the hands of a supreme leader and one ruling political party. Propaganda was used to spread the party's message and glorify the leader. There were no free elections, and other political parties were prohibited.
• Economy: The state intervened in and controlled the economy. Public-works programmes were used to reduce unemployment and trade unions were prohibited or controlled by the ruling elite.
• Society: The state limited rights and freedoms. Repressive measures were used against people who opposed or criticised the regime. Political opponents were arrested, imprisoned, deported or sent to prison camps. Supporters of the regime argued that their policies were necessary to solve the country's problems.
• Foreign policy: These regimes pursued expansionist foreign policies to gain new territory and access to raw materials.

Stalinism

After Lenin's death in 1924, Joseph Stalin became the leader of the USSR. Under Stalin, communist rule was consolidated and a totalitarian regime developed:

• Stalin controlled all branches of government. He also had control over the army, which he used against his political opponents and the general population. People who criticised or opposed Stalin's regime were executed or sent to prison camps in Siberia.
• The economy was planned and controlled by the state. Stalin introduced a series of Five-Year Plans, which aimed to achieve rapid industrialisation and economic development. Private property was prohibited, and industries such as iron, steel and mining were nationalised. In agriculture, Stalin's collectivisation policy took lands from private owners and used them to establish state-controlled collective farms.
• In theory, the Soviet Union was a classless, communist society. However, there were enormous social differences between the ruling elite, who had access to all types of consumer products, and the rest of the population, who suffered from shortages of food and other basic items. Many workers and peasants died of starvation in the 1930s.

Women and Stalinism: When he came to power, Stalin restricted women's rights and freedoms, suppressing the progressive measures that had been adopted during the Russian Revolution. Under Stalin, women were expected to get married, stay at home and have children. Couples were rewarded for having large families and it became more difficult for people to divorce.

Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany

After the First World War, Italy and Germany had suffered serious economic problems, including inflation and high unemployment. This led to increasing social conflict, with many strikes and protests. In this context, extreme right-wing political parties came to power in both countries.

The Fascist Regime in Italy

In 1921, Benito Mussolini founded the National Fascist Party. In 1922, with the support of King Emmanuel III, Mussolini became prime minister. He acquired more power over the years that followed, and in 1925 he established a dictatorship. As the supreme leader (Il Duce), Mussolini prohibited other political parties and persecuted those who opposed his regime. He introduced public-works programmes to reduce unemployment. In addition, he expanded Italy's colonial empire by invading Abyssinia (modern-day Ethiopia) in 1935.

Nazi Germany

In the 1920s, Adolf Hitler became leader of the Nazi Party in Germany. After elections in 1932 he was named chancellor. Once in power, Hitler proclaimed the Third Reich (empire) and in 1934 he made himself supreme leader, or Führer. He banned other political parties, as well as trade unions. He also created the Gestapo to eliminate any opposition. Hitler introduced public-works programmes to deal with Germany's high unemployment. He pursued an expansionist foreign policy designed to regain the territory which Germany had lost as a result of the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler believed that the German people were superior to other peoples. He was also extremely anti-Semitic, and during the 1930s German Jews were persecuted by the regime.

Women Under the Nazi and Fascist Regimes

In Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, women were considered inferior to men. Their role was to stay at home and married couples were encouraged to have many children. Mothers were supposed to teach their children Nazi values so that they would be useful to the regime when they became adults.

Spain: Dictatorship and Democracy

The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera

In 1923, General Miguel Primo de Rivera had led a military coup against the Spanish government. He claimed that only a dictatorship could solve the problems that had emerged during Alfonso XIII's reign. With the approval of the king, Primo de Rivera became head of the government. At first, many sectors of society supported the dictatorship. The army, the Church and business owners believed that it would restore order, while the trade unions hoped that Primo de Rivera would introduce labour reforms.

Primo de Rivera's Patriotic Union ruled the country as the only official political party:

• To re-establish order, the government suppressed protests, regionalist movements and anarchist organisations.
• More troops were sent to Morocco and in 1926 Spain declared victory in the Rif War.

From 1928 onwards, the dictatorship faced growing opposition. Opposition parties wanted to restore the Cortes, while the universities opposed the government's censorship policy. In addition, some members of the armed forces were dissatisfied with the existing system of promotion.

In 1929, the Great Depression began and the political situation in Spain deteriorated as a consequence. The economic crisis caused rising unemployment and social conflict. Alfonso XIII had supported the dictatorship, but he now withdrew this support. In 1930, Primo de Rivera finally resigned.

The Second Republic

In April 1931, municipal elections took place in Spain. When a Republican-Socialist coalition won in most cities, Alfonso XIII went into exile. On 14 April, the Second Republic was declared. The government then began working on a new constitution, which became the Constitution of 1931. The Second Republic can be divided into three periods: the period of the left-wing governments, the period of right-wing governments and the period of the Popular Front Government.

Left-Wing Governments

The governments of this period were formed by republicans from various political parties, led by Manuel Azaña. The president of the Republic was Niceto Alcalá-Zamora. During these years a number of significant reforms were introduced:

• Territorial reforms: These included a statute of autonomy for Catalonia.
• Land reform: Large agricultural estates were expropriated so that they could be broken up and given to poor, landless farmers. The landowners opposed this policy, and its slow implementation caused discontent among the rural working class.
• Educational reforms: Public education became free and compulsory. In addition, religious education in schools was banned.
• Labour reforms: New laws forced businesses to negotiate working conditions and wages with the trade unions. The working week was limited to 40 hours and wages were increased. Business owners were opposed to these changes.
• Military reforms: The number of officers was reduced. Many members of the armed forces opposed this change.

These reforms led to protests and disturbances by groups at both extremes of the political spectrum: the anarchist CNT and the FAI (Federación Anarquista Ibérica) on the left, and the Falange on the right. There were especially serious incidents in rural areas, such as in Casas Viejas (Cádiz), where many peasants were killed by the police. When the situation continued to deteriorate, Azaña finally resigned.

Right-Wing Governments (1934–1936)

After Azaña's resignation, elections were held. As a result, a more conservative government came to power. It suspended the previous government's reforms and took measures to stop protests and social conflicts. In October 1934, a general strike led to two important events:

• A social revolution broke out in Asturias.
• Catalonia proclaimed itself to be a state.

The army intervened to suppress both these uprisings, but increasing tension eventually brought about new elections in 1936.

The Popular Front Government

A coalition called the Popular Front, which was made up of various left-wing parties, won the election in February 1936. However, there were increasing numbers of protests and violent clashes between Falangists, socialists, anarchists and communists. In July 1936, a decisive event took place: part of the military rose up against the government. This uprising against the Second Republic triggered the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War.

The Spanish Civil War

The military rebellion that started in July 1936 was led by Generals Mola, Sanjurjo and Franco. The rebellion's aims were:

• To end the social disturbances that were taking place, such as protests, strikes and politically motivated acts of violence.
• To put a stop to the reforms that had been introduced by left-wing governments and reverse many of these changes.
• To prevent a potential revolution that might lead to the establishment of a communist state in Spain.

The uprising's supporters planned to remove the government from power and establish an authoritarian regime. However, they were unable to achieve a quick victory due to the strength of Republican forces. As a result, Spain was divided into two opposing sides and civil war broke out.

• The Nationalists: Were those who were in favour of the military uprising. They had the support of Germany, Italy and Portugal.
• The Republicans: Were those who were in favour of or loyal to the Republican government. They had the support of the USSR and the International Brigades.

After three years of fighting, the Nationalist army took Madrid in March 1939. On 1 April, the war ended with the Nationalist victory. The Nationalist leader, General Franco, established an authoritarian dictatorship inspired by the regimes of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.